But even greater changes have taken place in European politics.

The US-Soviet peace dialogue continued during the presidency of George W. Bush (1989-1993), in particular negotiations on the reduction of strategic offensive weapons (STO). An important step in this direction was Gorbachev’s first visit as President of the USSR to Washington in 1990 and his talks with Bush. Here, the main provisions of the START Treaty were agreed upon, as well as an agreement was concluded on the elimination of the vast majority of chemical weapons and the renunciation of their production. The documents indicated that the period of confrontation between West and East was giving way to partnership and cooperation.

International climate in Central and Eastern Europe

The negotiation process seized a wide range of weapons.

In 1989, multilateral negotiations on the reduction of armed forces and conventional weapons in Europe began in Vienna. At a meeting of 22 member states of the Security and Co-operation Council (CSCE) in November 1990 in Paris, the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe was signed, which defined a radical reduction of NATO and ATS conventional forces.

At the turn of the 80’s and 90’s, the USSR pursued an active international policy. Moscow has helped resolve a number of regional conflicts with the UN, which for the first time in its history has played a guarantor role in maintaining peace. After Gorbachev’s visit to Beijing in 1989, the normalization of Soviet-Chinese relations began. But even greater changes have taken place in European politics. During 1988-1989, the economic crisis in the European states of the Warsaw Pact sharply worsened. Almost everywhere there was a stagnation of production and a decline in real incomes. Budget deficits grew. The population of Eastern Europe rose resolutely to fight against totalitarian communist regimes. The ruling circles of Poland and Hungary, trying to shift responsibility for the crisis to the opposition, agreed to share power with democratic movements, to hold free elections.

However, elections in June 1989 in Poland and in March 1990 in Hungary led to the peaceful removal of the Communists from power. In October 1989, a revolution in the GDR began, symbolized by the resignation of E. Honecker, the collapse of the SED and the fall of the Berlin Wall. In November 1989, the “velvet revolution” began in Czechoslovakia, where opposition forces gradually pushed the Communists out of power; In 1993, Czechoslovakia split into two independent states, the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic.

During 1988-1990, the communist regime in Bulgaria was overthrown. After the bloody fighting in December 1989, the people’s revolution won in Romania. The revolutionary process covered not only the ATS countries, but also Albania and Yugoslavia. In the late 1990s, under pressure from students, the ruling Marxist Albanian Labor Party decided to introduce a multiparty system in the country.

The transition to political pluralism in Yugoslavia took place in 1990 against the background of exacerbation of ethnic conflicts, which led to the collapse of the federation. Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Macedonia declared independence in 1991. The Communists retained power only in Serbia and Montenegro. The two republics announced the restoration of the Yugoslav federation. The Serb population of Croatia (11%) and Bosnia and Herzegovina demanded the annexation of their compact settlements to Serbia. An interethnic war broke out in the former Yugoslavia, which became particularly violent in Bosnia and Herzegovina. To resolve these contradictions, a UN military contingent, which includes a Ukrainian unit, was forced to intervene.

The final end of the Cold War was marked by the unification of Germany. In February 1990, the four victorious nations of World War II – the USSR, the United States, Great Britain, and France – agreed with two German states, Germany and the GDR, to establish a “2 + 4″ negotiating mechanism for German unification … In September 1990, a treaty was concluded in Moscow on the final settlement of the German question, according to which a united Germany recognized the existing borders in Europe, renounced weapons of mass destruction, and undertook to reduce its armed forces. The Soviet Union undertook to withdraw its troops from German territory and did not deny its entry into NATO.

Changes in the political climate of Eastern Europe led to the dissolution of the ATS in 1991 and the withdrawal in the following years of Soviet troops from Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Germany.

The most powerful state in the communist bloc, the USSR, also disintegrated. Back in November 1988, the Verkhovna Rada of the Estonian SSR proclaimed the state sovereignty of Estonia. In 1989-1990, for the first time in the republics of the USSR, elections were held on a multiparty basis. National-patriotic forces pushed the Communists out of power. On July 16, 1990, the newly elected Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine.

The parliaments of Lithuania, Latvia, Belarus, Russia, Moldova and other republics have also proclaimed declarations of state sovereignty. After an unsuccessful attempt by conservative forces to carry out a coup d’etat in the USSR (August 19-20, 1991), the participant in the uprising – the Communist Party – was outlawed.

On August 24, 1991, the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine adopted the Act of Independence of Ukraine, and on December 1, 1991, the All-Ukrainian referendum approved it by more than 90% of the vote. On December 8, 1991, in Belovezhskaya Pushcha, the leaders of Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus announced the cessation of the USSR’s existence as an international entity. A new union was created – the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), which is more of a political declaration than a real treaty.

Russia has declared itself the successor to the USSR and responsible for all the agreements signed by Moscow. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and Kazakhstan became nuclear powers, concluding an agreement in Lisbon in 1992 that they would, in addition to Russia, get rid of nuclear weapons within seven years. Based on these agreements, Russian President Boris Yeltsin and George W. Bush signed the text of the START-1 treaty in Washington the same year, under which the United States and the former Soviet Union reduce strategic offensive weapons by 50 percent over seven years.

In January 1993, in Moscow, Yeltsin and Bush signed a new START-2 treaty halving strategic offensive weapons to the level of the START-1 treaty. Under a tripartite agreement between the United States, Russia, and Ukraine on January 14, 1994, Ukraine agreed to hand over 200 nuclear warheads to Russia for dismantling. Moscow has pledged to provide Ukraine with nuclear fuel, and the United States has pledged to finance the deal.

Replacing bipolarity with multipolarity in the world system in the 90s

With the collapse of communism, the bipolarity of the world and the East-West confrontation disappeared, but the number of international conflicts did not decrease. The conflict in the Persian Gulf, which began with the August 1900 attack on Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein’s troops, became particularly dangerous. Condemning the aggression, the UN Security Council set a final date for the withdrawal of Iraqi troops from Kuwait – January 15, 1991. A multinational military force led by the US command conducted Operation Desert Storm against Iraq and liberated Kuwait.

The changes that took place in international life in the early 1990s led to a new balance of power in the world. Russia was unable to support “pro-Soviet” regimes in Asia and Africa. This has contributed to the resolution or deepening of dialogue in resolving regional conflicts, including the Arab-Israeli one. Although the process of normalizing Israel’s relations with the Arab countries is constantly slowing down, the ways to resolve this longest-running conflict are quite clear.

Conflicts in Cambodia, Angola, and Mozambique have found a common solution; the apartheid regime in South Africa was abolished in 1990. However, a just and secure world community is still a long way off. On the territory of the former USSR and the camp of socialism, local conflicts have arisen and continue to smolder (Russia’s war against Chechnya, the Abkhazian-Georgian conflict, the Armenian-Azerbaijani clashes in Karabakh, unsettled relations after bloody clashes between Moldova and the so-called Transnistrian republics, etc.). …

An important element of international relations was the acceleration of Western European and European integration. In 1992, in Maastricht (Netherlands), the member states of the European Economic Community signed a new treaty on the European Union, on the basis of which the creation of an economic and monetary union should be completed by 1999. The Community also plans to develop a common defense policy in the field of security and to introduce a single European citizenship.

Former Soviet bloc countries are trying to break out of Russia’s sphere of influence through gradual integration into the EU and NATO. However, the level of their economic development does not allow Western Europeans to open the door to the EU to anyone. As for the North Atlantic bloc, in early 1994 the United States proposed a “Partnership for Peace” program within NATO, which provides for the gradual rapprochement of Eastern European countries. In 1997, the Atlantic leadership considered applications for NATO membership from Poland, the Czech Republic, and Hungary. These countries joined NATO in 1999.

The international situation in the post-communist era has not become more predictable and stable. In overcoming local and regional conflicts, the United Nations is playing an increasingly important role, as the main guarantor of international

literature

1. World History: A Handbook for States. exam for students. ist. special / Nizhyn state. Pedagogical University named after Mykola Gogol / Petro Petrovich … Motsiyaka (ed.) – Nizhyn: NDPU named after M. Gogol, 2004 .– 282p.

2. Gisem OV, Podobed AA World History 1918-1945 / Creative Union of Teachers of Ukraine; Association of Historians “Truth”. – K., 1996 .– 132p.

3. Gazin Vladimir Vladimirovich. World History of the twentieth century .: Textbook. way. for senior glass. and entrants / Kamyanets-Podilsky state. un-t. – Kamyanets-Podilsky: Axiom, 2004 .– 156p.

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Formation of the Bolshevik dictatorship in the USSR. Five years. Abstract

The limit of the transition to a new course in the policy of the Bolshevik regime was in 1928.

The previous decade was characterized as socialist construction in which of the following topics would be most appropriate for an autobiographical narrative peacetime, when the main policy was to implement the NEP policy, as a result of which the national economy was rebuilt: Soviet Russia surpassed pre-revolutionary Russia in terms of food, electricity, oil, coal , and machine tools.